Republic of China
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The Republic of China (edit:[[1]] is a state in East Asia. Once the unchallenged authority in all of China, it has lost control of mainland China and since the temporary cessation of the Chinese Civil War in 1950, has only administered the island groups of Taiwan, the Pescadores, Kinmen, and Matsu. Since the late 1990s, the Republic of China has been commonly referred to as "Taiwan", and since the late 1970s the name "China" has been increasingly used to refer to the People's Republic of China on mainland China. For political reasons, the Republic of China is sometimes referred to as "Chinese Taipei" in international organizations.
The ROC was established in 1912, replacing the last Chinese dynasty, the Qing Dynasty, and ending over 2,000 years of imperial rule in China. It is thus the oldest surviving republic in East Asia. The rule of the Republic of China in Mainland China was scarred by warlordism, Japanese invasion, and civil war. The civil war temporarily ceased in 1949 with Communist Party of China (CPC) in control of most of Mainland China, with the national government of the Republic of China in control of Taiwan and several offshore islands (Kinmen, Penghu, Matsu). The CPC proclaimed a new state, the People's Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing in 1949. The Republic of China on Taiwan continued to state that it was the sole and legitimate government of all of China. This was a claim recognized by most nations, up until the late 1970s. Taipei City was made the provisional capital of the ROC.
Since 1928, the Republic of China had been ruled by the Kuomintang (KMT) as an authoritarian dictatorship. In the 1950s and 1960s, the KMT took steps to reform the economy by reducing corruption and reforming land policies which coincided with a period of great economic growth despite the constant threat of war and civil unrest. The political scene changed in the 1980s and 1990s as the Republic of China government on Taiwan actively pursued a transition to a democratic system, beginning with the first direct presidential election in 1996 and culminating in the 2000 election of President Chen Shui-bian, the first non-KMT president elected.
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[edit] Political status
The political status of Taiwan remains a contentious issue. The PRC has since claimed that ROC has become obsolete, that the PRC has succeeded the entire sovereignty of ROC over all China, and that the ROC government in Taiwan is illegitimate.<ref>Template:Cite web See Sec. 1: "Since the KMT ruling clique retreated to Taiwan, although its regime has continued to use the designations "Republic of China" and "government of the Republic of China," it has long since completely forfeited its right to exercise state sovereignty on behalf of China and, in reality, has always remained only a local authority in Chinese territory."</ref> But the KMT-ruled government of the Republic of China continued to proclaim itself as the sole legitimate government of China, including Outer Mongolia and other foreign-held territories.
Although the ROC government under the administration of pro-independence President Chen Shui-bian does not actively claim jurisdiction over all of China, the national boundaries of the ROC have not been redrawn and currently displays mainland China, Taiwan, Mongolia, northern Burma, and Tuva as part of the Republic of China. In 1945, the ROC as representative of China was one of the founding states of the United Nations; however, in 1971, its delegates to UN were replaced by those from the PRC.<ref>See United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758.</ref> Because the PRC claims sovereignty over Taiwan and maintains its "One China Policy", and most states switched their recognition from the ROC to the PRC since the 1970s, the ROC is now officially recognized by only 25 countries, most of them in the Pacific, Latin America and Caribbean. The ROC maintains unofficial relations and ties with most nations, which are de facto diplomatic relations, only not in name.
[edit] History
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[edit] Revolution: growth and failure, 1911-1927
After over 2000 years of imperial rule, China overthrew its dynastic system in favor of a republic. The Qing Dynasty was weak, China having just experienced a century of instability, suffering from both internal rebellion and foreign domination. The Neo-Confucian principles that had previously sustained the dynastic system were now called into question with a loss of cultural self-confidence that resulted in about 40 million Chinese consumers of opium by 1900. By the time of its defeat by an expeditionary force of all major powers in 1900 during the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion, the Manchu dynasty was already in its last throes, with only the lack of an alternative regime in sight prolonging its existence until 1912.
The establishment of Republican China directly developed out of the Wuchang Uprising against the Qing Dynasty on October 10, 1911. The Republic of China government was declared on January 1, 1912, with Sun Yat-sen as first elected provisional president. As part of the agreement to have the last emperor Puyi abdicate, Yuan Shikai was officially elected president in 1913. However, Yuan dissolved the ruling KMT, ignored the provisional Constitution in asserting presidential power, and ultimately declared himself emperor of China in 1915.
In response, Yuan's supporters deserted him, and many provinces declared independence and became warlord states. Yuan Shikai died of natural causes in 1916. This thrust China into a decade of warlordism. Sun Yat-sen, forced into exile, returned to Guangdong province with the help of southern warlords in 1917 and 1920, and set up successive rival governments. Sun reestablished the KMT in October 1919.
The central power in Beijing struggled more and more to hold on to power. The "May Fourth Movement" brought much change with it, and challenged the powers of different regional areas. A lively debate evolved about the way China needed to deal with the confrontation with the West, first very open and wide ranging. After the Treaty of Versailles on the May 4th, a student protest led to a nationwide uprising and gave the movement its name.
Chinese anarchism, specifically anarchist communism, had been the one of the most prominent forms of revolutionary socialism even before the Wuchang Uprising. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, the influence of Marxism spread and became more popular. Two famous protagonists of the movement (Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu) were leading people in the Marxist-Leninist Communist movement in the beginning, which led to the founding of the Communist Party of China in July 1921.
[edit] Nationalist China, 1927-1949
After Sun's untimely death in March 1925, Chiang Kai-shek became the effective leader of the KMT having, with the help of the Soviet Union, led the successful Northern Expedition, which defeated the warlords and united China nominally under the KMT. Soviet advisors had provided training in advance propaganda, popular agitation, and Russian arms. However, Chiang soon dismissed his Soviet advisors, and purged communists and leftists from the KMT, catalyzing the Chinese Civil War; in one bloody turn in 1927, Communist-led labor unions who had taken control of Shanghai awaited orders from Chiang only to be massacred by the arrival of Nationalists. The Communists were thus pushed into the interior as Chiang Kai-shek sought to destroy them, and Chiang consolidated rule, establishing a Nationalist Government in Nanjing in 1928. Efforts were subsequently begun to establish a modern civil society, creating the research institute Academia Sinica, the Bank of China, and many other agencies.
However, any stability was promptly interrupted by the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, with hostilities continuing through the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), during which they made massive territorial gains. With Japan's surrender in 1945, China emerged victorious and the Republic of China became one of the founding members of the United Nations.
The civil war between the Communists and the Nationalists resumed and intensified after the Japanese surrender in 1945, and despite the numerical superiority and American aid until 1947, the Nationalists succumbed after a series of military tactical mistakes and spiraling inflation to the Communists in 1949.
[edit] The Republic of China on Taiwan, 1945-present
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After the defeat of Japan during World War II, Taiwan was surrendered to the Allies and occupied by the ROC government on behalf of the Allied Powers. It was governed under a corrupt military administration leading to widespread island unrest and increasing tensions between Taiwanese and mainlanders.<ref>Template:Cite news (Subscription required)</ref> The arrest of a cigarette vendor and the shooting of a bystander on February 28, 1947 triggered island-wide unrest, which was then suppressed with military force, due to armed rebellion occurring, in what is now called the 228 Incident. Mainstream estimates say anywhere from 10,000 to 30,000 people died, mainly Taiwanese elites. However, in recent ROC government amends to these victims only about 700 victims come forward. This might imply that estimates of the number of victims have been exaggerated. The military administration declared martial law in 1948.<ref>Template:Cite news (Subscription required) Full version at [2]</ref> Template:Articles of Taiwan In this tumultuous climate, after the defeat of the KMT in 1949, Chiang Kai-shek evacuated the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan and declared Taipei the provisional capital of China. Accompanying his retreat were some 2 million refugees from mainland China, adding to the earlier population of approximately 6 million. <ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Because of the fear of the spread of Communism during the Cold War, the Republic of China on Taiwan was at first seen by the Western world, meaning mainly the United States and its allies, as "Free China" and a bastion against Communism, while in contrast the People's Republic of China was seen as "Red China" or "Communist China". The Republic of China was recognized as the sole legitimate government of both Mainland China and Taiwan by the United Nations and many Western nations until the 1970s, but as it became clear that the Communist government was stable and would not be dislodged as the de facto government of China any time soon, recognition by most major powers switched from the ROC to the PRC.
Taiwan remained under martial law, under the name of the "Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion" (動員戡亂時期臨時條款) and one-party rule for four decades from 1948 until 1987, when Presidents Chiang Ching-kuo and Lee Teng-hui gradually liberalized and democratized the system. In 2000, Chen Shui-bian of the more pro-independence Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) was elected president, becoming the first non-KMT constitutional president of the Republic of China.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In the 2004 presidential elections, after being shot while campaigning just one day before, Chen was reelected by a narrow margin of just 0.2%.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In both Chen's terms the DPP and the Taiwanese independence leaning Pan-Green Coalition failed to secure a majority of seats in the legislature, losing to the KMT and the pro-eventual unification leaning Pan-Blue Coalition. Because the president in the ROC system does not have the power of veto, this has led to many impasses as the legislature does not see it necessary to negotiate with the executive branch.
[edit] Politics
[edit] Republican China, 1911-1949
The original founding of the Republic centered on the Three Principles of the People (san min zhuyi): nationalism, democracy, and people's livelihood. Nationalism meant standing up to Japanese and European interference, democracy meant elected rule modeled after Japan's parliament, and people's livelihood or socialism, meant government regulation of the means of production. Another lesser known principle that the Republic was founded upon was five races under one union" (五族共和), which emphasized the harmony of the five major ethnic groups in China as represented by the colored stripes of the original Five-Colored Flag of the Republic. However, this five races under one union principle and the corresponding flag were abandoned in 1927.
In reality these three principles were left unrealized. Republican China was marked by warlordism, foreign invasion, and civil war. Although there were elected legislators, from its inception, it was actually a largely one-party dictatorship apart from some minor parties <ref>Template:Cite web</ref>, including the Chinese Youth Party <ref>Template:Cite paper</ref>, the National Socialist Party and the Rural Construction Party <ref>Template:Cite news</ref>, with suppression of dissent within the KMT of the Communists. As the central government was quite weak, little could be done in terms of land reform or redistribution of wealth either. Politics of this era consisted primarily of the political and military struggle between the KMT and the CPC in between bouts of active military resistance against Japanese invasion.
[edit] Political structure
The first national government of the Chinese Republic was established on January 1, 1912, in Nanjing, with Sun Yat-sen as the provisional president. Provincial delegates were sent to confirm the authority of the national government, and they later also formed the first parliament. The power of this national government was both limited and short-lived, with generals controlling both central and northern provinces of China. The limited acts passed by this government included the formal abdication of the Qing dynasty and some economic initiatives.
Shortly after the rise of Yuan, the parliament's authority became nominal--violations of the Constitution by Yuan were met with half-hearted motions of censure, and Kuomintang members of the parliament that gave up their membership to the KMT were offered 1,000 pounds. Yuan maintained power locally by sending military generals to be provincial governors or by obtaining the allegiance of those already in power. Foreign powers came to recognize Yuan's power as well: when Japan came to China with 21 demands, it was Yuan that submitted to them, on May 25, 1915.
With the death of Yuan, the parliament of 1913 was reconvened to give legitimacy to a new government. However, the real power of the time passed to military leaders, forming the warlord period. Still, the powerless government had its use--when World War I began, several Western powers and Japan wanted China to declare war on Germany, in order to liquidate the latter's holdings there.
From the beginning to the end of Republican China, political power was generally exercised through both legal and non-legal means. Yuan ruled as a dictator, remolding the constitution as he saw fit; warlords withdrew from the Republic, ruling through military control; and Chiang based his political power on military power. During this time, Chiang ruled more as a dictator than as a leader of a one-party state. He used white terror tactics and various military campaigns to destroy the CPC, and the police and military apparatus were freely used to attack dissenters. However, Chiang's influence never extended beyond the Yangtze Delta, and the rest of the country was under the effective control of former warlords, and Chiang faced insurrections from them throughout the 1930s, even after the Northern Expedition, which had nominally unified the country. Regional political power remained strong throughout Republican China, and central authority deteriorated continuously until the Second Sino-Japanese War, to the point that Chiang became no more than the "head of a loose coalition," as observed by Albert Wedemeyer.
[edit] Republic of China on Taiwan, 1949-present
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The constitution of the Republic of China was drafted before the fall of mainland China to the Communists and was created for the purpose of forming a coalition government between the Nationalists and the Communists for rule of all of China, including Taiwan. However, the CPC boycotted the National Assembly, and it is also worth noting, that the Taiwanese representatives were not elected. Further, it was clear that Chiang Kai-shek would retain most of his power as an authoritarian leader. The constitution went into effect December 25, 1947.
Because Taiwan remained under martial law from 1948 until 1987, much of the constitution was not in effect. Since the lifting of martial law, the Republic of China has undergone a drastic process of democratisation and reform, removing legacy components that were originally meant for the governing of mainland China. Many legacy components that still remain are nonfunctional. This process of amendment continues today as the government continues to reform itself. In May of 2005, a new national assembly was elected to reduce the number of parliamentary seats and implement several constitutional reforms. These reforms have since been passed, with the national assembly essentially voting to abolish itself and transferring the power of constitutional reform to the popular ballot.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
[edit] Political status and the major camps
One key issue has been the political status of Taiwan itself.<ref>Template:Cite press release Sec. II-2: "“The Republic of China is an independent and sovereign state. Taiwan’s sovereignty belongs to the 23 million people of Taiwan. Only the 23 million people of Taiwan may decide on the future of Taiwan”. This statement represents the greatest consensus within Taiwan’s society today concerning the issues of national sovereignty and the future of Taiwan. It is also a common position shared by both the ruling and opposition parties in Taiwan. A recent opinion poll shows that more than 90% of the people of Taiwan agree with this position."</ref> With the diplomatic isolation brought about in the 1970s and 1980s, the notion of "recovering the mainland" by force has been dropped and the Taiwanese localization movement strengthened. The relationship with the People's Republic of China and the related issues of Taiwan independence and Chinese reunification continue to dominate Taiwanese politics.
The political scene in the ROC is divided into two camps, with the pro-unification and center-right KMT, People First Party (PFP), and New Party forming the Pan-Blue Coalition, and the pro-independence and center-left Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) and centrist Taiwan Solidarity Union (TSU) forming the Pan-Green Coalition.
Supporters of the Pan-Green camp tend to favor emphasizing Taiwan as being distinct from China. Many Pan-Green supporters seek formal Taiwanese independence and for dropping the title of the Republic of China. However, more progressive members of the coalition, such as current President Chen Shui-bian, have moderated their views and claim that it is unnecessary to proclaim independence because Taiwan is already "an independent, sovereign country" and that the Republic of China is the same as Taiwan. Some members take a much more extreme view about Taiwan's status, claiming that the ROC is nonexistent and calling for the establishment of an independent Republic of Taiwan. Supporters of this idea have even gone as far as issuing self-made "passports" for their republic. Attempts to use these "passports" however, have been stopped by officials at Chiang Kai-shek International Airport.
While the Pan-Green camp favors Taiwan having an identity separate from that of China, some Pan-Blue members, especially former leaders from the older generation, seem to be strongly supportive of the concept of the Republic of China, which remains an important symbol of their links with China. During his visit to mainland China in April 2005, former KMT Party Chairman Lien Chan reiterated his party's belief in the "One China" policy that states that there is only one China controlled by two governments and that Taiwan is a part of China. PFP Party Chair James Soong expressed the same sentiments during his visit in May. In contrast to the positions of these two leaders of the older generation, the more mainstream Pan-Blue position is to pursue negotiations with the PRC to immediately open direct transportation links with China and to lift investment restrictions. With regards to independence, the mainstream Pan-Blue position is to simply maintain the ROCs current state, and being open to negotiations for unification.
For its part, the PRC has indicated that it finds a Republic of China far more acceptable than an independent Taiwan. Ironically, although it views the ROC as an illegitimate entity, it has stated that any effort on Taiwan to formally abolish the ROC or formally renounce its claim over the Mainland would result in a strong and possibly military reaction. However, the defense of Taiwan by the US and Japan is likely, so it is not, in reality, clear what the PRC reaction would be. The US's current position is that the Taiwan issue must be resolved peacefully and that it condemns unilateral action by either side, an unprovoked invasion by China or a declaration of formal independence by Taiwan.
